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JMJ
At this point, I've now
covered the whole Catholic Encyclopedia article on Virtue. I've already come across some other virtues that I'll add when I have time / inclination - such as Mercy.
I will admit that some virtues are explained differently than I had anticipated. This may be due to the language shift that occurs over a century. (NB: I have edited some of the following text for brevity, but have run out of time - so the rest is a c&p from the original article.)
All the same a fruitful study and the result of which is this summary chart:
Causes of virtue
Thee first principles of knowledge, both speculative and moral are innate to the human intellect as the tendency to rational good (what is perceived as good) is innate to the human will. These naturally knowable principles and tendencies to good constitute the seeds from which the intellectual and moral virtues spring. Further, because of individual temperament (nature as opposed to nurture) some individuals are better disposed than others to particular virtues. This is why some persons have a natural aptitude with regard to science, others to temperance, and others to fortitude. So nature itself is identified as the "radical cause" of the intellectual and moral virtues, at least in their nascent state. However, n their perfect and fully developed state, the virtues are caused or acquired by frequently practice. Thus by multiplied acts the moral virtues are generated in the appetitive faculties in so far as they are acted upon by reason, and the determination of first principles.In contrast the supernatural virtues are immediately caused or infused by God. A virtue may be called infused in two ways: first, when by its very nature (per se) it can be effectively produced by God alone; secondly, accidentally (per accidens) when it may be acquired by our own acts, but by a Divine dispensation it is infused, as in the case of Adam and Christ.
Now besides the theological virtues, according to the doctrine of St. Thomas, there are also moral and intellectual virtues of their very nature Divinely infused, as prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. These infused virtues differ from the acquired virtues as to their effective principle, being immediately caused by God, whilst the acquired virtues are caused by acts of a created vital power;
- by reason of their radical principle, for the infused virtues flow from sanctifying grace as their source, whereas the acquired virtues are not essentially connected with grace;
- by reason of the acts they elicit, those of the infused virtues being intrinsically supernatural, those of the acquired not exceeding the capacity of human nature;
- whilst one mortal sin destroys the infused virtues, with the acquired virtues acts of moral sin are not necessarily incompatible, as contrary acts are not directly opposed to the corresponding contrary habit.
Properties of virtues
Mean of virtues and the Golden Mean
One of the properties of virtues is that they consist in the golden mean, i.e. in what lies between excess and deficit. For as the perfection of things subject to rule consists in conformity with that rule, so also evil in those same things results from deviation from that rule either by excess or defect.Hence the perfection of the moral virtues consists in rendering the movements of the appetitive powers conformable to their proper rule, which is reason, neither going beyond nor falling short of it. Thus fortitude, which makes one brave to meet dangers, avoids on the one hand reckless daring and on the other undue timidity.
This golden mean, which consists in conformity with right reason, sometimes coincides with the mean of the objective thing, for example the virtue of justice that renders to every man his due, no more and no less.
The golden mean, however, is sometimes taken in reference to ourselves, as in the case of the other moral virtues, viz. fortitude and temperance. For these virtues are concerned with the inner passions, in which the standard of right cannot be fixed invariably, as different individuals vary with regard to the passions. Thus what would be moderation in one would be excess in another. Here also it is to be observed that the mean and extremes in actions and passions must be determined according to circumstances, which may vary. Hence with regard to a certain virtue, what may be an extreme according to one circumstance may be a mean according to another. Thus perpetual chastity, which renounces all sexual pleasures, and voluntary poverty, which renounces all temporal possessions, are true virtues, when exercised for the motive of more surely securing life everlasting.
With regard to the intellectual virtues, their golden mean is truth or conformity to reality, whilst excess consists in false affirmation, and defect in false negation.
Theological virtues do not absolutely (per se) consist in a mean, as their object is something infinite. Thus we can never love God excessively. Accidentally (per accidens), however, what is extreme or mean in theological virtues may be considered relatively to ourselves. Thus although we can never love God as much as He deserves, still we can love Him according to our powers.
Connection of virtues
Another property of virtues is their connection with one another. This mutual connection exists between the moral virtues in their perfect state. "The virtues", says St. Gregory, "if separated, cannot be perfect in the nature of virtue; for that is no true prudence which is not just and temperate and brave". The reason of this connection is that no moral virtue can be had without prudence; because it is the function of moral virtue, being an elective habit, to make a right choice, which rectitude of choice must be directed by prudence. On the other hand prudence cannot exist without the moral virtues; because prudence, being a right method of conduct, has as principles whence it proceeds the ends of conduct, to which ends one becomes duly affected through the moral virtues. Imperfect moral virtues, however, that is to say, those inclinations to virtue resulting from natural temperament, are not necessarily connected with one another. Thus we see a man from natural temperament prompt to acts of liberality and not prompt to acts of chastity. Nor are the natural or acquired moral virtues necessarily connected with charity, though they may be so occasionally. But the supernatural moral virtues are infused simultaneously with charity. For charity is the principle of all good works referable to man's supernatural destiny. Hence it is necessary that there be infused at the same time with charity all the moral virtues by which one performs the different kinds of good works. Thus the infused moral virtues are not only connected on account of prudence, but also on account of charity. Hence he who loses charity by mortal sin looses all the infused but not the acquired moral virtues.From the doctrine of nature and properties of virtues it is abundantly clear how important a role they play in man's true and real perfection. In the economy of Divine Providence all creatures by the exercise of their proper activity must tend to that end destined for them by the wisdom of an infinite intelligence. But as Divine Wisdom governs creatures conformably to their nature, man must tend to his destined end, not by blind instance, but by the exercise of reason and free will. But as these faculties, as well as the faculties subject to them, may be exercised for the faculties subject to them, may be exercised for good or evil, the proper functions of the virtues is to dispose these various psychical activities to acts conductive to man's true ultimate end, just as the part which vice plays in man's rational life is to make him swerve from his final destiny. If, then, the excellence of a thing is to be measured by the end for which it is destined, without doubt among man's highest principles of action which play so important a part in his rational, spiritual, supernatural life, and which in the truest sense of the word are justly called virtues.
Application in Today's World
I think that the Golden Mean a key in this crisis of the Church. We need to practice the virtues neither in excess or defect - just on the knife's edge.
Case in point would be criticism of the Assisi Meetings (I, II and III). Obviously, it is important to state the truth about such a gathering (quoting Pope Pius XI is a simple method, followed by rational commentary).
The error in excess would be to launch off on a tirade against the Pope, forgetting the respect that is due to the person occupying the office of the Vicar of Christ.
The error in defect would be to forget the respect that is due to the truth and Divine Law.
An example of an error in defect, in my opinion, is CMTV's response to the crisis of the Church. Specifically, refusing to implicate (read criticise) the Pope in any of his doing and attacking those individuals and organizations that don't agree with them.
Walking on a knife's edge isn't easy and often you'll get cut, but to stray a little to either side and the quest will be lost.
P^3
Further Reading
Reference
APA citation. Waldron, M.A. (1912). Virtue. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved July 27, 2015 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15472a.htm
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